613-61 


THE  NERVOUS  ELEMENT  IN  AVIATION 


By 

G.  u;  PILL.MORF. 

• % 

Lieutenant,  Medical  Corps,  United  States  Navy 


Reprinted  from  United  States  Naval  Medical  Bulletin,  Volume  13,  No.  3 


WASHINGTON 

GOVERNMENT  PRINTING  OFFICE 
1919 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 
in  2017  with  funding  from 

University  of  Illinois  Urbana-Champaign  Alternates 


https://archive.org/details/thenervouselemenOOpill 


Naval  Medical  Bulletin  No.  3,  July,  1919. 


Pilot  preserving  machine’s  balance  with  his  weight  on  one  wing.  A bad  landing; 
high  and  dry  at  low  tide.  A group  of  instructors;  hale  and  hearty  men,  all. 


458-1 


THE  NERVOUS  ELEMENT  IN  AVIATION. 

By  G.  U.  Pillmobe,  Lieutenant,  Medical  Corps,  United  States  Navy. 

Most  of  the  discussions  concerning  aviation  in  the  medical  journals 
have  been  of  a very  special  nature.  The  exhaustive  researches  and 
experimental  work  completed  by  the  eye  and  ear  specialists  have 
placed  this  branch  of  medicine  in  an  important  position.  The  im- 
portance of  the  eye  and  ear  specialist’s  examination  of  the  applicant 
for  aviation  is  unquestioned.  To  their  most  thorough  and  diligent 
application  we  owe  the  present  high  physical  standards  in  naval 
aviation.  Their  work  has  become  so  prominent  and  their  study 
of  the  ear  apparatus,  for  example,  has  become  so  thoroughly  recog- 
nized that  when  one  speaks  of  the  medical  aspect  of  aviation  the 
civilian  physician  at  once  thinks  of  the  Barany  whirling  chair,  and 
his  mind  turns  to  the  eye  and  ear  specialist. 

We  had  at  the  station  at  Bay  Shore,  Long  Island,  about  14,000 
hours  of  actual  flying  time  in  the  air  and  I investigated  about  100 
crashes.  I watched  the  daily  routine  work  with  deep  interest.  I 
associated  as  closely  as  possible  with  these  young  fliers  and  tried  to 
understand  their  likes,  their  dislikes,  and  their  whims.  I listened  to 
their  many  tales  of  experiences  and  difficulties  in  the  air  and  myself 
experienced  many  of  these  things  with  them.  Now  I can  say  firmly, 
that  the  best  flier  is  the  one  with  the  best  head  and  the  most  common 
sense,  with  good  judgment,  and  a clear,  healthy  intellect  which  he 
keeps  that  way. 

As  a result  of  my  experience  I believe  that  the  importance  of  eye 
and  ear  tests  has  not  diminished  but  that  the  principal  place  for  their 
consideration  is  the  recruiting  station.  Once  a recruit  is  passed  to 
the  aviation  training  station  as  normal  another  phase  of  his  medical 
recruiting  begins  and  here  the  nerve  specialist,  using  that  term  in  its 
most  general  sense,  becomes  the  most  important  examiner.  Not  only 
must  functional  changes  in  the  nervous  system  itself  be  closely 
watched  and  studied  but  also  the  more  subtle  changes  and  vagaries, 
which  frequently  arise  during  the  student’s  training  and  show  them- 
selves as  emotional  disturbances,  should  be  observed. 

My  first  case  having  a definite  relation  to  this  aspect  of  aviation 
was  a student  flier  sent  to  me  by  the  officer  on  the  beach  in  charge  of 

116025G— 19 1 o 


4 


THE  NERVOUS  ELEMENT  IN  AVIATION. 


flying.  The  young  man  reported  to  me  alone,  and  said  that  he  had 
been  sent  to  me  by  the  flight  officer  for  an  examination.  I con- 
cluded that  I would  phone  to  the  flight  officer  for  information,  and 
soon  I heard  a voice  saying,  “ Doctor,  I have  taken  that  boy  whom 
I have  just  sent  over  to  you  up  for  a flight  three  times  to-day,  and 
every  time  I pushed  the  plane  over  the  ; hump  ’ that  young  fool  has 
frozen  on  to  the  controls.  The  last  time  up  he  hung  on  so  tight  that 
both  of  us  nearly  went  to  Davy  Jones’s  locker.  If  you  want  my 
honest  opinion  about  the  case,  I will  say  that  the  fool  is  about  scared 
to  death.  Let  me  know  what  you  find,  will  you?” 

I must  confess  that  the  information  set  me  back  a bit  for  a mo- 
ment. But  I kept  the  young  fellow  at  the  sick  bay  for  nearly  a half 
day  making  examinations  of  his  eye  and  the  ear.  My  report  at  the 
conclusion  of  the  long  examination  was  that  the  man,  as  far  as  I could 
see,  was  in  fair  physical  condition.  A careful  questioning  of  the 
individual  and  a complete  history  of  the  case,  however,  revealed  a 
man  in  a stage  of  nervous  exhaustion,  with  a distinctly  neurasthentic 
history.  So  I talked  with  the  flight  officer  and  told  him  all  I could 
about  the  boy’s  nervous  condition.  I gained  the  flight  officer’s  confi- 
dence at  once,  and  after  that  he  sent  me  every  man  who  showed  any- 
thing affecting  his  flying  no  matter  what  it  was. 

There  were  two  classes  of  men  to  be  constantly  watched.  First 
were  the  instructors  who  had  been  flying  for  a long  time  and  were 
the  teachers  on  the  station.  The  second  group  included  the  students 
who  were  still  learning  how  to  fly.  The  problem  was  comparatively 
simple  with  the  instructors,  for  they  were  permanent  officers  of  the 
personnel  of  the  station  and  I was  in  constant  association  with  them 
over  a period  of  many  months.  With  the  students,  however,  the 
problem  was  more  difficult,  for  as  soon  as  they  were  qualified  to  fly 
they  were  sent  south  for  more  advanced  flying  and  patrol  instruction 
at  another  station. 

The  course  of  instruction  was  essentially  preliminary.  It  was  here 
that  we  met  the  man  who  had  his  first  trip  in  an  aeroplane.  In 
fact  it  was  exceptional  at  Bay  Shore  to  find  an  individual  who  had 
ever  been  in  an  aeroplane  before.  Two  or  three  had  had  flights  in 
some  of  the  old  types  of  the  Curtiss  plane. 

Of  course,  students  were  coming  and  going  as  fast  as  the  exigen- 
cies of  the  training  school  would  permit.  The  average  length  of 
time  existing  between  the  attachment  and  detachment  of  the  student 
at  the  station  was  a little  below  40  days.  All  the  information  'gath- 
ered about  a man  had  to  be  collected  within  that  length  of  time. 
As  far  as  possible  they  were  placed  in  classes  in  so  far  as  my  depart- 
ment was  concerned.  There  were  the  good  fliers,  the  poor  fliers,  and, 


THE  NERVOUS  ELEMENT  IN  AVIATION. 


5 


of  course,  all  kinds  of  curious  intermixtures  of  freak  fliers  and  in- 
consistent ones  up  and  down  the  scale. 

The  different  cases  investigated  with  relation  to  aptitude  for  fly- 
ing were  handled  individually  and  were  taken  up  as  though  the 
whole  matter  were  an  extremely  personal  affair.  The  failures  were 
not  advertised  to  the  camp  except  in  the  case  of  a man  who  simply 
flunked  out  and  could  or  would  not  fly,  whereupon  he  was  given 
the  choice  of  reverting  to  the  status  of  an  enlisted  man,  or  of  leaving 
the  naval  service  altogether  as  most  of  the  total  failures  preferred. 
The  disgrace  attached  to  the  latter  occurrence  affected  the  man  very 
much  as  a rule,  although  several  did  not  seem  to  mind  such  drastic 
measures,  for  their  main  desire  was  to  get  away  from  the  sight  of  an 
aeroplane. 

The  individual  after  having  once  enlisted  for  actual  duty  involv- 
ing the  flying  of  heavier-than-air  craft,  and  having  successfully 
passed  the  final  examination  in  the  ground-school  course,  simply  had 
to  make  good.  The  majority  did  make  good  and  received  their  fly- 
ing commission  with  the  whole-hearted  enthusiasm  born  of  having 
enjoyed  the  entire  course  of  instruction.  A few  completed  the  course 
and  were  successful  because  of  plain  grit  and  determination  and  a 
much  less  number  could  not  make  the  goal  at  all.  The  latter  group, 
practically  always,  did  not  like  flying  and  made  such  failures  in  at- 
tempts at  it  that  they  were  excluded.  Several  in  this  latter  group 
however  did  like  it  but  could  not  master  the  art  of  flying  at  all. 
These  generally  made  the  doctor’s  life  miserable  by  crashing  up 
machines  and  getting  into  all  kinds  of  wrecks  one  after  the  other. 
But  they  made  good  ground  officers  in  aviation  and  were  generally 
commissioned  as  such. 

The  instructors  at  the  training  station  were  selected  and  assigned 
to  the  various  training  stations  with  care.  Supposedly,  they  were 
the  best  fliers  the  Navy  could  produce,  and  were  recommended  for 
this  kind  of  duty.  There  was  very  little  changing  about  of  in- 
structors from  one  station  to  another.  So  month  after  month  they 
went  through  the  daily  grind  of  teaching  men  to  fly.  Their  students 
went  across  and  did  valuable  patrol  duty  on  the  high  seas,  and  as 
word  came  back  of  their  excellent  work  over  there,  occasionally  there 
would  be  outbursts  of  grumbling  over  the  hard  luck  of  being  forced 
to  stay  in  this  country  for  training  duty.  But,  of  course,  every  one 
could  not  go,  and  duty  was  duty. 

In  considering  the  important  work  of  an  aviator,  we  become  im- 
pressed with  the  fact  that,  to  be  successful,  he  must  conform  to  a 
good  mental  and  physical  standard.  Our  physical  standards  are 
well  established  and  in  examining  candidates  for  aviation  we  follow 
certain  rules  regularly.  However,  in  regard  to  the  mental  state, 


6 


THE  NERVOUS  ELEMENT  IN  AVIATION. 


which  is  of  great  importance,  there  is  not  at  this  time  any  fixed 
standard  of  examination. 

What  is  needed  most  in  a flier  is  a high  degree  of  mental  efficiency 
with  no  departures  from  the  normal  manner  of  thinking,  acting,  and 
feeling.  We  can  not  imagine  a good  flier  having  a functional  neu- 
rosis such  as  psychasthenia,  showing  states  of  pathologic  fear  or 
anxiety  with  tics  present  and  feelings  or  inadequacy,  influencing  his 
make-up. 

There  are  certain  individuals  with  whom  we  come  into  casual 
contact  daily  who  are  not  of  the  normal  make-up,  but  who  are  not 
classed  as  having  abnormal  mentality.  Such  individuals  often  pre- 
sent an  appearance  of  brilliancy  and  originality,  but  with  this  betray, 
as  a rule,  defects  of  judgment,  their  plans  often  resulting  in  failure. 
They  do  not  remain  at  one  occupation  long  enough  to  obtain  a thor- 
ough knowledge  of  it  and  are  forever  changing  from  one  manner 
of  life  to  another.  They  lack  the  persistence  or  will  power  to  com- 
plete or  carry  to  a logical  conclusion  any  undertaking.  Slight  ob- 
stacles will  discourage  them  and  often  lead  to  radical  alterations  of 
their  mode  of  life.  They  manifest  but  little  sympathy  or  consid- 
eration for  others.  They  are  self-absorbed,  vain,  egotistical,  and  self- 
assertive.  An  individual  of  this  type  often  impresses  his  friends  or 
relatives  as  a kind  of  genius.  Time  passes,  however,  and  no  results 
are  achieved.  The  money  of  this  or  that  relative  is  lost  in  various 
enterprises.  He  lies  and  swindles  to  obtain  money.  He  neglects 
his  family.  The  true  condition  is  only  disclosed  by  a painstaking 
study  of  his  history.  Quite  commonly  the  family  will  scout  the  idea 
of  the  young  fellow  not  being  mentally  well,  particularly  where  a 
rich  father,  long-suffering  and  indulgent,  is  concerned. 

Again,  an  individual  may  inherit  a tendency  to  nervous  exhaustion. 
His  resistance  to  fatigue  may  be  very  feeble.  By  the  demands  that 
aviation  make  on  him,  overfatigue  is  frequent.  If  he  has  inherited 
neuropathic  tendencies  he  may  be  reduced  to  such  a state  that  the  rest 
or  food  required  to  restore  a normal  individual  can  not  place  him  upon 
a normal  base  again.  In  time  he  develops  a well-defined  neurosis  with 
definite  symptoms.  There  will  be  a marked  diminution  of  his  capacity 
for  sustained  mental  effort.  He  becomes  chronically  tired.  He  puts 
off  matters  requiring  a decision,  and  finally  with  the  development  of 
marked  uncertainty,  hesitation,  and  habitual  indecision  the  instructor 
pulls  him  out  of  flying  and  sends  him  to  the  doctor  for  examination. 
We  will  often  discover  cases  which  appear  to  be  decidedly  non- 
neuropathic  but  still  experience  nervous  exhaustion.  However,  the 
individual  does  not  develop  a distinct  psj^chosis. 

Fully  as  important  as  the  psychoses  of  neurasthenia  are  the  motor, 
sensory,  and  general  somatic  disturbances. 


THE  NERVOUS  ELEMENT  IN  AVIATION. 


7 


We  find  some  men  whose  muscles  reveal  fatigue  and  the  subject  ap- 
pears to  have  become  suddenly  weak.  The  statements  of  the  student 
in  regard  to  motor  symptoms  are  evident.  He  will  declare  that  the 
drilling  on  the  parade  ground  seems  to  be  the  last  straw  on  the  camel’s 
back.  He  thinks  that  if  he  can  get  out  of  drilling  he  will  be  all  right. 
An  examination  of  his  tendon  reflexes  may  reveal  a diminution  of  the 
same.  Commonly,  however,  the  reactions  are  exaggerated.  A very 
fine  tremor  of  the  hands  may  be  found.  Placing  the  man  on  very 
light  duty  does  not  improve  him  much.  We  know  that  it  is  not  on  ac- 
count of  lack  of  rest,  for  he  has  very  little  liberty  and  goes  to  bed 
early  and  sleeps  the  sleep  of  exhaustion.  In  the  morning,  however,  in- 
stead of  feeling  rested,  he  still  retains  a tired  feeling. 

Again,  various  reports  at  the  sick  bay  show  many  mild  sensory  dis- 
turbances. The  individual  complains  of  obscure  pains  wdiich  refer 
to  the  limbs,  trunk,  or  head.  I remember  one  lad  in  particular  who 
said  that  he  felt  as  if  the  whole  top  of  his  head  had  been  scooped  out 
and  a vacant  space  remained  from  just  above  his  ears  upwTard.  A 
superficial  examination  showed  stigmata  of  a degenerated  nervous 
system.  Complaints  of  dizziness  are  not  often  made.  They  should 
lead  one  to  think  of  neurasthenia  and  not  into  examining  the  ear 
alone.  Insomnia  is  very  frequent,  and  a student  will  hear  the  con- 
stant roar  of  the  motor  for  hours  after  going  to  bed.  He  tosses  about 
and  has  difficulty  in  procuring  rest. 

A common  symptom  relates  to  the  digestive  tract.  The  individual 
at  first  feels  no  distress  after  taking  food,  but  later  he  feels  oppression 
with  a sense  of  weight.  As  a result  of  the  extremely  high  nervous 
output  required,  the  excess  stimulation  of  the  innervation  of  his 
stomach  will  cause  a hyperacidity. 

As  we  look  over  the  circulatory  apparatus  of  these  individuals  who 
represent  the  neurasthenic  types  with  an  insufficient  number  of  nerv- 
ous impulses  delivered  throughout  the  body,  the  results  of  this  de- 
ficient innervation  become  evident.  We  find  cold  extremities,  for 
example.  In  marked  cases,  which  are  not  common,  the  force  and 
rhythm  of  the  heart’s  action  is  not  steady. 

The  psychic  phenomena  bear  a definite  relation  to  the  circulatory 
phenomena  as,  for  example,  in  fear,  where  the  individual’s  pulse 
suddenly  quickens  and  even  palpitation  of  the  heart  may  occur.  But 
as  regards  aviation,  transitory  palpitation  may  affect  the  strongest  as 
death  stares  him  in  the  face  with  the  machine  and  pilot  in  a pre- 
carious predicament.  I have  had  palpitation  of  the  heart  as  I 
watched  a plane  come  tumbling  into  the  water  from  a height  of 
4,000  feet. 

Another  physical  condition  noticed  in  the  two  weak-nerved  indi- 
viduals of  this  type  was  a sexual  disturbance.  Of  course,  the  strain  of 
flying  does  not  bring  the  neurasthenic  to  the  stage  of  the  special 


8 


THE  NERVOUS  ELEMENT  IN  AVIATION. 


phobias  and  marked  obsessions.  We  get  rid  of  him  long  before  he 
completely  breaks  down,  and  I suppose  upon  going  back  to  civil  life 
he  regains  his  normal  status  again. 

The  psychology  of  flying  covers  a vast  field  which  an  ordinary 
observer  will  find  extremely  difficult  to  traverse.  In  the  study  of  the 
mind  and  mental  operations  of  an  aviator  we  find  ourselves  ranging 
in  our  observations  between  two  positions.  The  first  is  occupied  by 
the  flier  who  flies  along  with  practically  no  thought  of  danger,  or,  if 
it  is  present,  it  is  such  a part  of  his  subconscious  mind  that  he  does 
not  experience  any  sense  of  it  at  all.  The  second  is  occupied  by  the 
young  fellow  who,  upon  first  going  up  and  experiencing  an  unpleasant 
thrill  with  his  pilot,  immediately  grabs  hold  of  the  controls'  and 
hangs  on  for  dear  life.  The  latter  case  represents  a confusion  of 
mentality  both  quantitative  and  qualitative.  It  is  between  these  two 
positions  that  the  doctor  often  has  to  work  as  a psychologist. 

There  are  a few  conditions  which  it  would  be  well  to  note  as 
specific  contraindications  to  flying.  For  example,  there  should  be 
no  history  of  attacks  of  malaria.  Cold  in  high-altitude  flights  might 
precipitate  a chill. 

Every  man  in  the  Flying  Corps  of  the  Navy  must  have  a Wasser- 
mann  done  upon  entrance.  I think  it  would  be  a good  thing  to  have 
the  Wassermann  taken  every  six  months.  Mental  symptoms  in  the 
primary  stage  are,  of  course,  infrequent ; however,  we  may  meet  with 
dizziness,  insomnia,  headache,  and  depression.  The  psychic  shock 
of  the  discovery  of  having  contracted  this  disease  might  play  some 
role. 

A man  with  a mild  beginning  of  pellagra  could  easily  escape  the 
attention  of  the  recruiting  office,  especially  in  the  North,  where  we 
see  very  little  of  it. 

In  alcoholism  there  is  a depression  of  functions — a confused  and 
poor  mentality — if  the  indulgence  has  been  carried  far  enough.  The 
young  man  who  is  subject  to  alcoholic  debauches  will  break  down 
eventually  in  flying.  One  man  wTas  discovered  on  the  verge  of 
delirium  tremens.  He  was  an  instructor  who  is  not  flying  now. 
The  degree  of  resistance  to  alcohol  in  some  individuals  may  be 
enormous  or  exceedingly  slight,  so  it  is  a fixed  necessity  that  it  be 
cut  out  entirely. 

Any  form  of  drug  habit,  disorders  of  metabolism,  such  as  diabetes 
or  gout  and  a vast  category  of  visceral  diseases,  should  exclude  the 
individual  from  flying.  Under  visceral  diseases,  and  particularly 
Uright’s  disease,  we  find  any  number  of  conditions  that  would  con- 
traindicate flying.  Hence  the  value  of  giving  fliers  routine  physical 
examinations. 

Other  diseases  which  have  a definite  relation  to  mentality  in  flying 
are  diseases  of  the  ductless  glands,  epilepsy,  hysteria,  cerebral 


THE  NERVOUS  ELEMENT  IN  AVIATION. 


9 


syphilis,  multiple  cerebro-spinal  sclerosis,  arteriosclerosis,  and  any 
pathological  condition  of  the  brain. 

The  English  observers  lay  particular  stress  upon  the  medical  his- 
tory. They  believe  that  a more  complete  medical  history  of  the 
applicant  should  be  taken  along  with  the  physical  examination. 
This  should  cover  inquiry  into  previous  occupations,  habits  (espe- 
cially as  to  alcohol  and  tobacco) , and  mode  of  life  as  well  as  previous 
health  and  family  history. 

The  family  history,  especially  with  regard  to  diseases  of  the  ner\  - 
ous  system,  might  shed  some  light  on  the  type  of  soil  with  which  one 
has  to  deal,  especially  in  relation  to  the  strain  of  war  flying.  A 
candidate  with  a history  of  easily  induced  chilblains  should  not  be 
allowed  to  fly  at  great  heights.  Inquiry  should  be  made  into  the 
usual  amount  of  sleep  obtained,  and  whether  this  is  disturbed  or 
not.  Any  signs  of  restlessness  should  be  noted  as  they  might  point 
to  an  unstable  nervous  system. 

It  is  believed  that  the  psychological  examination  is  of  equal  value1 
to  the  physical  examination  in  the  profession  of  flying  in  heavier- 
than-air  craft. 

The  best  examination  that  can  be  given  to  a prospective  student  for 
aviation  is  one  given  by  a doctor  having  a good  knowledge  of  special 
aviation  tests  combined  with  personal  experience  in  handling  the 
u controls  ” of  a plane  of  his  own.  The  best  method  of  having  such 
a doctor  look  over  the  candidate  completely  is  to  order  the  candidate* 
to  a flying  station  immediately  after  he  has  met  the  preliminary  phys- 
ical requirements;  and,  once  there,  to  allow  the  doctor  who  flies 
himself  to  continue  the  rest  of  the  examination  at  leisure. 

It  would  not  take  long  for  the  medical  officer  to  reach  a definite 
conclusion.  This  would  indeed  save  the  needless  loss  of  many  weeks 
to  that  man  who,  after  going  through  a school  of  technology,  flunks 
out  later  when  the  real  flying  begins.  Send  the  man  to  technology 
after  he  has  passed  the  medical  officer’s  examination  at  a naval  air 
station.  If  the  student  then  likes  the  little  flying  he  has  seen  and' 
experienced  with  a medical  officer,  if  he  is  enthusiastic  to  reach  the 
goal,  he  will  apply  himself  far  more  diligently  at  the  technological 
school : and,  furthermore,  will  have  the  proper  attitude  toward  avia- 
tion, namely  the  selection  of  it  as  a chosen  profession. 

The  student  at  the  present  time  gets  his  physical  examination  first, 
and  is  then  sent  to  the  ground  school  of  technology  for  many  weeks, 
after  which  he  is  sent  to  an  air  station  for  training,  and  finally  expe- 
riences his  first  flight. 

Of  course  the  above  can  not  be  accomplished  if  the  medical  officer 
doing  duty  at  an  aviation  station  is  detached  frequently  and  placed 
on  medical  duties  other  than  aviation.  A medical  officer  should  be 
attached  to  aviation  permanently.  Many  important  and  intelligent. 


1160250—19 2 


10 


THE  NERVOUS  ELEMENT  IN  AVIATION. 


observations  of  extreme  value  have  been  spoiled  because  suddenly 
after  a few  months  of  this  duty  the  medical  officer  is  placed  on  some 
other  kind  of  work  altogether.  I have  on  my  desk  several  papers 
written  by  very  intelligent  observers  all  of  whom  were  detached  from 
aviation  after  a very  short  time  at  the  flying  fields.  I am  sure  that 
their  continuance  with  the  aviation  unit  would  have  resulted  in  very 
good  and  exhaustive  research.  Unfortunately  a medical  officer  new 
to  aviation  has  to  start  at  the  very  beginning  when  it  comes  to  get- 
ting experience  in  actual  flying  sensations  himself.  He  can  not  begin 
where  some  one  else  left  off. 

An  editorial  written  in  the  Lancet  of  January  12,  1918,  presented 
the  idea  of  a medical  department  for  aviation  duty  alone.  I cer- 
tainly believe  that  this  should  be  done  so  far  as  is  possible.  There 
are  many  problems  that  one  never  dreams  of  until  after  one  has  had 
certain  experiences  in  the  air.  As  stated  in  the  Lancet  there  is  not  a 
medical  man  with  or  without  special  knowledge  wTho  can  not  see  that 
the  strain  on  these  young  men  is  great,  and  that  to  allow  unfit  per- 
sons to  take  the  responsibility  of  flying,  air  scouting,  and  air  fight- 
ing may  be  to  condone  suicide.  Questions  of  blood  pressure,  of 
cardiac  affections,  of  muscular  balance,  and  nervous  stability  are 
alike  involved,  and  the  flyer  should  not  only  be  selected  from  the 
beginning  for  his  sound  physiological  and  particularly  psychological 
make-up,  but  he  should  be  submitted  to  regular  scrutiny  during  the 
whole  time  that  he  continues  to  discharge  his  duties. 

A medical  officer  should  investigate  the  causes  of  injuries  in  order 
that  accidents  may  as  quickly  as  possible  be  grouped  according  to 
their  similarity  in  occurrence,  or  in  other  points,  for  in  this  way  the 
existence  of  some  common  physical  defect,  which  has  led  to  a group 
of  accidents,  may  be  detected  in  other  aviators  before  new  tragedies 
have  occurred  from  the  same  old  cause.  It  is  important  that  a 
medical  officer  should  be  a member  of  the  board  appointed  by  the 
commanding  officer  to  investigate  the  cause  of  crashes.  A medical 
officer  arriving  fresh  on  the  station  every  few  months  will  never  help 
to  solve  the  problems  of  flying  as  quickly  as  the  medical  officer  who 
flies  himself  and  has  been  with  aviation  for  a long  time. 

It  is  believed  also  that  the  medical  officer  for  this  detail  should  be 
selected  with  as  much  care  as  a student  flier.  He  should  be  capable  of 
becoming  engrossed  in  air  problems  and  see  and  experience  them 
in  the  air  himself,  for  aviators  do  not  as  a rule  lay  particular 
stress  upon  telling  all  their  own  difficulties  and  defects  in  the  air, 
and  to  ask  questions  about  certain  things  will  very  often  bring  you 
nowhere.  Fliers  dissimulate  well,  if  for  no  other  reason  than  to 
protect  their  reputations  as  good  fliers. 

Aviation  at  this  date  has  gone  far  beyond  the  experimental  stage. 
Few  men  make  a success  in  medicine  unless  they  like  it,  and  the  same 


THE  NERVOUS  ELEMENT  IN  AVIATION. 


11 


holds  true  with  aviation.  Many  young  medical  students  never  get 
beyond  the  first  year  in  college,  and  one  sight  of  a leg  amputation  is 
enough.  One  sight  of  an  aeroplane  crash  or  one  flight  with  “ stunts  ” 
will  do  up  a few  of  those  prospective  candidates,  who  upon  applying 
for  aviation  hold  uppermost  in  their  minds  the  tender  spot  some  girl 
had  in  her  heart  for  the  bold  aviator  who  after  shutting  off  the  power 
to  his  engine,  as  the  newspapers  describe  it,  “ places  his  machine  fear- 
lessly into  a long  glide,  and  at  last  lands  safely  in  a level  40-acre  lot.” 

There  are  undesirables  in  naval  aviation  who  accomplished  their 
courses  during  the  time  the  Government  was  working  at  high  pres- 
sure to  get  fliers  abroad.  But  they  are  being  dispensed  with.  Many, 
at  last,  got  in  their  so-called  required  number  of  hours  who  disliked 
flying,  were  afraid  of  it,  and  soon  wanted  to  get  out.  But  the 
thought  of  being  a “flunk”  drove  them  on,  and  rather  than  admit 
that  they  did  not  like  it  would  crash  any  day.  This  was  courage  of 
a kind,  indeed,  but  courage  misplaced. 

A certain  student  flier  who  had  a few  hours  of  solo  work  could 
not  properly  describe  to  me  how  to  get  out  of  a tail  spin.  He  said 
the  problem  had  not  occurred  to  him  before,  and  he  declared  that  the 
new  sensation  of  suddenly  finding  himself  really  in  an  aeroplane 
was  so  exciting  and  there  were  so  many  things  at  the  air  station 
which  he  had  never  heard  of  before*  and  events  were  occurring  so 
quickly  one  after  the  other  that  parts  of  it  were  a jumble  in  his  head. 
Luckily  for  this  boy  the  plane  had  practically  flown  by  itself,  and  the 
air  conditions  were  good  at  the  time. 

Major  Greene,  in  The  Military  Surgeon,  suggests  testing  ability 
to  qualify  as  an  aviator  by  giving  the  applicant  an  opportunity 
to  fly  as  a passenger.  He  may  develop  certain  symptoms,  not  dis- 
coverable in  an  ordinary  medical  examination,  which  would  lead  to 
prompt  disqualification.  On  the  other  hand,  an  applicant  of  doubtful 
qualities  might  readily  demonstrate  peculiar  fitness  for  flying.  I 
have  found  this  to  be  very  true. 

The  so-called  attitude  of  staleness  is  observed  not  infrequently  in 
some  of  the  old  fliers.  When  this  is  discovered,  a most  thorough 
investigation  of  the  man’s  habits  should  be  carried  out.  Occasionally 
too  much  indulgence  in  alcohol  and  the  night  lights  of  a great  city 
will  bring  about  a certain  listlessness  toward  flying.  A man  can 
lower  his  physical  condition  to  the  point  of  uselessness  by  such  de- 
bauches. He  can  fly  after  his  excesses,  but  he  is  decidedly  not  at  his 
best.  A flier  should  be  trained  as  an  athlete  in  order  to  bring  out  his 
best  ability.  Befuddled  brains  from  “hang  overs”  should  never 
direct  an  aeroplane. 

The  ear  specialists  and  the  eye  specialists  have  long  since  estab- 
lished themselves  in  aviation  and,  it  is  believed,  have  swung  the 
pendulum  too  far  to  the  side  of  the  eye  and  ear  being  the  all-important 


12 


THE  NERVOUS  ELEMENT  IN  AVIATION. 


organs  in  the  profession  of  flying.  It  is  time  that  a reaction  were 
brought  about  and  that  the  neurologist  occupied  as  strong  a foothold 
as  do  the  eye  and  ear  specialists. 

It  is  not  out  of  order  at  this  point  to  mention  a few  things  a flier 
must  bear  in  mind  as  you  watch  him  gracefully  playing  hide  and 
seek  with  the  clouds  way  up  yonder  at  a dizzy  height.  If  you  know 
him  well  and  can  have  the  expensive  pleasure  of  flying  about  with  him 
on  some  of  his  capers  you  will  find  him  to  be  a very  matter-of-fact 
individual  who  will  wink  and  chuckle  good-naturedly  at  you  after 
he  has  scared  you  nearly  to  death  by  looping  the  loop  a half  dozen 
times  or  dropping  into  a tail  spin. 

As  said  before,  the  natural  accomplishment  of  flying  is  the  result 
of  the  proper  following  of  natural  laws.  I will  describe  to  you  as 
simply  as  I can  the  method  of  ordinary  straight  flying  and  not 
attempt  to  discuss  the  fancy  tricks  and  “stunts”  that  the  young 
dare-devil  performs. 

The  instruction  given  to  students  is  not  along  hard  and  fast  lines 
that  can  be  studied  from  a textbook.  The  instructor  does  not  sit  at  a 
desk  distributing  typewritten  circulars  on  the  subject  of  how  to  fly. 
The  instruction  is  carried  out  while  actually  flying.  Faults  and  im- 
provements are  discussed  while  on  the  beach  with  the  pupil,  to  whom 
is  given  all  the  additional  information  that  the  instructor  possesses. 
The  pupil  is  checked  up  as  his  defects  appear. 

The  individuality  of  the  instructor  affects  the  method  of  teaching. 
For  example,  one  instructor  believes  that  conservative  flying  is  best 
when  a student  is  on  his  first  flight,  and  another  believes  that  on  the 
first  flight  the  young  fellow  should  be  given  real  thrills. 

STRAIGHTAWAY  FLIGHT:  A BEE-LINE  COURSE. 

While  flying  horizontally  all  fore-and-aft  positions  should  be  care- 
fully maintained.  Most  attention  should  at  first  be  given  to  the 
direction  of  the  course.  Considerable  pressure  must  be  applied  to 
the  right  side  of  the  rudder  bar  to  keep  the  machine  from  sliding  to 
the  left  on  account  of  the  torque  of  the  motor.  The  amount  neces- 
sary must  be  determined  by  watching  along  the  side  of  the  fuselage 
and  adjusting  the  pressure  until  the  nose  of  the  machine  holds  an 
absolutely  straight  course.  The  importance  of  steering  an  absolutely 
bee-line  course,  is  due  to  the  fact  that  the  machine  has  a dished  angle. 
This  makes  the  machine  automatically  more  stable.  Thus,  when 
right  rudder  is  applied  the  shifting  of  the  forces  drops  the  right  wing 
and  raises  the  left  wing.  The  opposite  is  true.  Conversely,  if  our 
wing  drops  owing  to  unevenness  in  the  air  stratum  the  machine 
will  turn  in  the  direction  of  the  low  wing.  Hence,  the  importance 
of  steering  a straight  course  for  the  rudder  serves  two  purposes,  not 


THE  NERVOUS  ELEMENT  IN  AVIATION. 


13 


only  steering  the  machine,  but  keeping  it  level.  The  instant  the 
nose  of  the  machine  moves  ever  so  slightly,  to  the  right  or  left,  the 
pressure  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  rudder  must  be  increased  until 
the  swinging  is  checked.  But  the  pressure  must  be  released  and  the 
rudder  returned  to  neutral  the  instant  the  nose  comes  back  in  line 
with  the  course.  If  pressure  is  kept  on  too  long,  the  machine  will 
slide  over  the  course  to  the  other  side  and,  if  this  is  kept  up,  it  will 
result  in  a snaky  course.  The  best  helmsman  is  the  one  who  steers 
the  straightest  course  and  moves  the  wheel  the  least.  The  same  is 
true  of  the  pilot  of  a plane.  Watch  the  nose  of  the  machine  like  a 
hawk  and  stop  the  instant  it  starts.  If  enough  attention  is  paid  to 
this,  it  will  soon  become  intuitive.  Firm  pressure  should  be  kept 
on  both  sides  of  the  rudder.  Eventually  the  pilot  should  be  able  to 
“ feel  ” the  air  on  his  rudder  and  allow  for  bumps  as  they  first  hit 
the  machine.  If  the  pressure  against  the  right  foot  increases  sud- 
denly it  means  that  the  wind  is  pushing  against  the  right  of  the 
rudder.  If  the  rudder  holds  it  place  this  pressure  will  swing  the 
machine  to  the  right,  as  it  is  the  equivalent  of  right  rudder.  For 
this  reason  if  the  pilot  is  wide-awake  and  eases  off  on  his  right  rudder 
until  he  feels  no  thrust  on  his  right  foot  the  machine  will  fool  the 
gust  and  keep  a steadier  course.  Sometimes  this  sort  of  gust  is  so 
strong  that  merely  letting  off  on  the  right  rudder  will  not  suffice 
and  left  rudder  will  be  necessary.  If  the  pupil  watches  an  expe- 
rienced pilot’s  use  of  the  rudder,  he  will  see  that  the  bar  is  almost 
never  stationary  in  disturbed  air,  but  is  moving  slightly  to  left  and 
right  through  a very  small  arc.  This  is  because  the  pilot  is  playing 
with  his  rudder  to  “ feel  ” the  air.  The  sooner  this  knack  is  acquired 
the  better  for  the  pupil. 


LATERAL  BALANCE. 

We  have  seen  that  lateral  balance  can,  under  ordinary  circum- 
stances, be  maintained  by  making  use  of  the  fact  that  the  rudder 
bar  is  operated  by  the  feet  and  manipulates  the  rudder  on  the  tail 
of  the  machine,  turning  the  plane  to  right  or  left,  aiding  thereby  in 
banking  the  machine.  The  rudder  is  the  chief  agent  in  controlling 
lateral  balance  in  fairly  calm  air,  but  in  bumpy  air  the  ailerons 
must  sometimes  be  used.  Rudder  control  of  lateral  balance  is  at 
best  slow,  and  in  case  of  very  bad  air  sometimes  insufficient.  Aileron 
control  is  faster  but  for  this  reason  less  finally  controllable.  A mix- 
ture or  coordination  of  rudder  and  aileron  control  is  proper  and 
often  essential.  Neither  one  will  do  alone.  They  will  act  together 
much  more  easily  and  quickly,  as  together  they  have  more  control 
surface  and  this  surface  is  diverted  between  the  three  extremities  of 
the  machine.  Thus  if  the  right  wing  drops  down  suddenly,  increase 
the  pressure  on  the  left  rudder,  and  at  the  same  time  turn  the  wheel 


14 


THE  NERVOUS  ELEMENT  IN  AVIATION. 


to  the  left  until  the  pressure  on  the  plane  lets  up,  when  you  must 
instantly  restore  the  control  to  neutral.  You  can  feel  the  neutral 
position  of  the  wheel,  for  there  will  be  no  pressure  on  the  ailerons  as 
they  are  in  a straight  line  with  the  wing.  The  amount  you  must  turn 
the  wheel  varies  with  the  severity  of  the  gust,  but  it  is  rarely  more 
than  a very  small  amount,  and  the  neutral  position  will  naturally 
be  found,  as  the  wheel  is  turned  off  as  much  as  it  was  turned  on  to 
neutral.  The  importance  of  correct  coordination  of  rudder  and 
aileron  can  not  be  overemphasized.  A pilot  who  does  this  well  can 
go  through  any  weather  with  full  confidence.  There  are  several 
means  by  which  you  can  check  your  lateral  balance.  The  way  you 
should  eventually  tell  is  by  feel ; that  is,  use  of  your  sense  of  balance, 
but,  until  you  acquire  this,  certain  mechanical  checks  are  necessary. 
As  you  steer  your  course  by  watching  some  two  points  of  the  nose 
of  the  machine,  watch  that  these  points  do  not  roll  down  or  up  the 
horizon.  At  the  same  time  watch  your  wings  out  of  the  corner  of 
your  eye  and  check  any  rolling  that  may  occur.  In  machines  with 
Cabaur  struts  (triangle),  use  the  triangle  formed  by  them  for  the 
same  purpose.  To  be  sure  that  you  know  what  level  is,  look  out 
at  the  furthest  strut  on  the  right  wing,  see  how  much  of  it  shows 
above  or  below  the  horizon,  and  then  check  the  left  wing  to  see  that 
the  same  amount  shows.  Here  is  lateral  balancing  of  the  machine 
as,  in  your  steering,  movements  should  be  checked  the  instant  they 
begin. 

LONGITUDINAL  POSITION  OF  PLANE. 

This  position  is  regulated  and  controlled  by  the  forward  and  back- 
ward movement  of  the  wheel.  There  is  no  fixed  position  for  the 
wheel,  as  this  depends  on  many  factors,  such  as  the  balance  of  the 
machine,  the  power  of  the  motor,  and  the  kind  of  flight.  There  is 
one  cardinal  point  to  be  remembered  at  all  times.  Disregard  of  this 
will  immediately  place  the  pilot  and  machine  in  a critical  situation. 
The  pilot  must  always  bear  in  mind  that  the  machine  must  have 
flying  speed  at  all  times.  Flying  speed  is  lost  in  straightaway  flight 
by  allowing  the  nose  to  ride  beyond  a certain  elevation,  or  in  other 
words  by  climbing  too  steeply.  Of  course,  the  angle  of  flying  differs 
for  various  types  of  machines  because  of  the  differing  power,  plane 
surface,  resistance,  etc.  After  some  experience,  you  can  determine 
the  critical  angle  of  any  machine,  but  until  you  acquire  this  “ feel,” 
you  must  use  the  experience  of  your  instructor.  He  will  show  you 
the  proper  flying  angle  for  the  type  of  plane  you  are  flying,  but  this, 
of  course,  is  true  only  when  the  motor  is  performing  normally.  Here 
again  you  must  use  some  check  of  your  own  guidance  until  you  get 
the  feel.  In  our  training  plane,  use  the  point  on  the  nose  by  which 
you  steer  a plane,  and  note  its  position  on  the  horizon.  This  point 


THE  NERVOUS  ELEMENT  IN  AVIATION. 


15 


must  never  be  raised  above  the  horizon  unless  by  orders  of  the  in- 
structor. This  will  insure  you  a conservative  flying  angle,  and  is  the 
only  correct  one  for  you  to  use  while  under  dual  instruction  for  the 
first  15  hours  of  solo,  but  often  you  will  have  no  horizon  by  which 
to  check  up  your  flight  angle  until  you  have  acquired  feel.  There  is 
one  invaluable  check  which  you  must  accustom  yourself  to  use.  You 
can  always,  except  at  night,  fly  so  that  you  can  see  the  plane  of  the 
water.  This  is  often  all  that  you  can  see,  so  this  check  makes  use  of 
this  plane  instead  of  the  plane  of  the  horizon,  though  when  the 
horizon  is  invisible,  the  check  may  be  used  on  either  plane,  as  they 
are  both  perpendicular  to  gravity.  As  you  look  out  at  the  wing  tips, 
you  will  see  that  the  outside  struts  on  either  wing  cut  the  horizon  or 
the  plane  of  the  earth  at  an  angle  dependent  on  the  flying  angle  of 
the  machine.  This  angle,  by  the  forward  edge  of  the  outside  strut 
and  the  plane  of  the  horizon  or  earth’s  surface,  should  never  exceed 
90°.  For  really  conservative  flight,  it  should  be  nearer  80°.  In  clear 
weather  with  a good  horizon,  this  angle  will  be  checked  more  easily 
on  the  horizon,  but  in  rain,  haze,  or  whenever  you  can  see  no  horizon, 
you  should  fly  close  enough  to  the  water  to  check  this  angle  on  the 
plane  of  the  water.  As  soon  as  you  acquire  “ feel,”  you  may  disre- 
gard this  check.  This  particular  check  is  for  use  only  with  a motor 
that  is  giving  its  full  power.  With  an  under-power  motor,  the  ma- 
chine’s climbing  angle  will  be  lowered  in  proportion  to  the  loss  of 
power.  Your  lift  is  obtained  by  the  power  given  by  your  motor.  If 
this  decreases,  you  must  keep  your  lift  by  nosing  down  and  gaining 
your  full  speed.  You  must  accustom  yourself  to  the  sound  of  your 
motor,  and  train  yourself  to  recognize  the  slightest  peculiarity  in  its 
exhaust.  If  your  motor  misses  or  loses  vigor,  you  lose  speed,  and 
upon  speed  solely  depends  your  safety.  So  keep  your  speed  by  utiliz- 
ing gravity  and  nosing  over  until  you  can  feel  a good  lift.  If  you 
lose  all  your  power,  you  must  put  the  machine  in  a glide  to  get  flying 
speed,  and  keep  this  until  you  land.  This  matter  of  flying  speed  is 
the  most  important  in  all  flying  and  is  never  to  be  forgotten.  Play 
the  game  conservatively  and  always  keep  speed  in  reserve.  Without 
speed  your  machine  is  as  air  worthy  as  a ship  with  its  hull  full  of 
holes,  because  speed  is  so  absolutely  essential.  Keep  this  always  in 
mind. 

TURNS. 

If  rudder  alone  is  applied,  the  machine  will  skid  away  from  the 
direction  you  desire  to  turn  in  the  same  way  as  does  an  automobile 
traveling  in  a high  rate  of  speed  on  an  unbanked  turn.  In  an  aero- 
plane a skid,  if  carried  out  far  enough,  will  result  in  a complete  loss 
of  flying  speed.  A stall  results  and  flying  speed  must  be  regained 
by  a dive  in  a skid.  Flying  speed  and  lift  are  lost  in  proportion  to 


16 


THE  NERVOUS  ELEMENT  IN  AVIATION. 


its  severity.  If  bank  alone  is  applied,  flying  speed  and  lift  will  be 
decreased  in  proportion  to  the  amount  of  bank  until  a stall  occurs, 
when  speed  must  be  regained  through  a dive.  A parallel  illustration 
may  be  seen  in  the  case  of  an  automobile  taking  a turn  banked  too 
much.  There  are  several  good  illustrations  of  the  theory  of  a turn, 
such  as  the  motorcycle  in  the  eggshell  track  of  the  circus,  a bank 
motordrome,  the  chairs  suspended  from  ropes  on  a pole  which  are 
swung  around  the  pole  at  increasing  speed.  You  should  study  the 
theory  of  the  turn  until  you  have  absolutely  mastered  it,  for  until 
you  understand  it,  you  will  never  be  able  to  turn  well.  From  a 
study  of  the  turn,  you  will  see  that  for  one  reason  there  is  but  one 
correct  bank.  There  is  a straight  course  with  no  bank,  a most 
gradual  turn  with  a most  gradual  bank,  and  the  corresponding  in- 
creasing bank  and  radius  until  you  get  to  the  vertical  bank  and 
shortest  radius. 

The  actual  method  of  making  a turn  is  as  follows:  Level  your 
machine  to  an  absolutely  horizontal  flight.  Note  some  point  on  nose 
of  machine  which  is  on  the  horizon.  Apply  rudder  and  bank  simul- 
taneously, and  smoothly,  not  too  fast.  Machine  will  start  turning 
and  banking  at  same  time.  Keep  your  points  all  steady  on  horizon, 
note  your  bank,  and  when  you  have  reached  the  desired  degree, 
neutralize  your  ailerons  and  keep  enough  pressure  on  rudder  to 
make  nose  of  machine  travel  steadily  around  on  horizon.  Adjust 
pressure  on  rudder  to  suit  bank,  not  vice  versa.  Watch  nose,  not 
wing.  Occasional  glances  at  wing  if  necessary  are  permissible,  but 
you  should  be  able  to  judge  bank  by  angle  of  nose  of  machine  relative 
to  horizon.  Too  much  rudder  will  make  you  skid,  and  you  will  feel 
air  on  your  outside  cheek  and  also  a tendency  to  lean  in  toward 
the  center.  Too  little  rudder  will  cause  side-slip.  You  will  feel  first 
a tendency  to  lean  outwards,  and  when  slipping,  a strong  pressure 
of  air  on  your  inside  cheek.  In  a correct  turn  you  should  feel  com- 
fortable in  your  seat  with  air  on  neither  cheek  and  should  end  your 
turn,  no  matter  how  long,  with  the  same  amount  of  bank  as  you  com- 
menced with.  Fully  as  important  as  the  bank  and  radius  of  a turn 
is  the  elevation  of  the  nose  of  the  machine.  The  nose  must  be  kept 
on  the  horizon,  and  altitude  must  neither  be  gained  nor  lost.  You 
must  guard  against  the  tendency  of  the  “ torque  ” to  raise  your  nose 
on  a right  turn,  and  pull  it  down  on  left  turn.  If  you  climb  on  a 
turn,  you  will  gradually  lose  lift  and  stall,  and  you  will  then  go 
into  a spin.  If  you  gradually  lose  altitude  on  a turn,  you  will  eventu- 
ally spin.  In  bumpy  weather,  use  of  ailerons  may  be  necessary  while 
turning,  in  order  to  keep  bank  constant,  but  this  comes  naturally. 

To  come  out  of  the  turn,  give  opposite  rudder  and  aileron  until 
machine  is  level  horizontally  and  the  desired  course  is  assumed,  being  j 


THE  NERVOUS  ELEMENT  IN  AVIATION.  17 

careful  to  keep  the  nose  still  level.  Neutralize  control  instantly  this 
is  attained,  and  check  up  to  see  that  wings  are  level  and  course  is 
true.  Fly  level  for  a few  seconds  before  resuming  climbing  flight. 
If  bank  and  rudder  are  not  taken  off  together,  the  machine  will  skid. 
Coming  out  of  a turn  well  is  as  essential  as  going  into  one.  You 
should  practice  coming  out  of  turns  onto  a given  course  so  as  to 
gain  accuracy,  and  you  should  practice  turning  through  360°.  When 
you  feel  that  your  turns  are  falling,  turn  steadily  to  720°  and  the 
fault  wTill  be  exaggerated  so  that  you  can  discover  where  it  lies, 
Remember  your  flying  speed  in  a turn  as  everywhere  else,  and  remem- 
ber that  as  you  tend  to  decrease  your  lift  rapidly  in  a faulty  turn 
with  a bad  engine,  you  should  be  well  on  the  side  of  excess  flying 
speed.  It  is  very  advisable  to  adopt  your  own  standard  turns ; that 
is,  one  that  you  can  alwaj-s  be  absolutely  sure  of.  It  may  often  come 
in  handy.  Never  bank  steeply  close  to  the  water,  except  in  case  of 
emergency.  Play  it  safe,  for  you  never  know  at  what  instant  your 
motor  may  quit,  and  when  it  quits  in  a turn,  you  want  room  and 
plenty  of  it.  Except,  when  unavoidable,  no  turn  should  be  made 
under  300  feet. 

GLIDING. 

The  machine  glides  when  it  utilizes  the  force  of  gravity  instead  of 
its  motor  to  maintain  flying  speed.  The  machine  is  under  fully  as 
good  control  in  a proper  glide  as  in  motor  flight,  and  the  old  notion 
that  when  an  engine  stops  in  the  air  the  pilot  is  doomed  has  of 
course  been  exploded.  The  pilot’s  life  is  in  danger  if,  when  his  motor 
quits,  he  does  not  instantly  maintain  flying  speed  by  gliding.  Lift 
is  attained  by  the  thrust  of  the  air  and  the  wings,  and  if  the  motor 
can  not  give  you  this  speed,  the  glide  will.  There  are  all  degrees 
of  glides  from  the  minimum  when  the  lift  is  least,  to  the  maximum 
or  nose  dive,  when  the  machine  accelerates  so  quickly  as  to  be  of 
no  value  near  the  ground.  The  proper  gliding  angle  is  that  which 
gives  the  machine  a constant  speed  slightly  in  excess  of  that  of  motor 
flight.  You  can  determine  the  speed  of  the  machine  in  a glide  in 
two  ways — first  and  best,  by  the  whistle  of  your  wires;  second,  by 
the  air  speed  indicator.  The  former  is  better  by  far  for  it  is  always 
reliable,  and  no  instrument  is  always  reliable.  Also  the  former  is 
available  at  night,  when  you  may  be  unable  to  use  your  instruments. 
The  pitch  of  the  whistle  should  remain  constant  after  you  once 
assume  your  glide  and  should  be  clearly  audible.  The  instructor 
will  show  you  what  is-  the  correct  pitch,  and  you  should  never  glide 
at  a lower  one.  You  must  accustom  yourself  to  glide  by  this  sound, 
for  it  is  absolutely  essential  and  is  furthermore  important  in  spiral- 
ing. The  essential  fact  to  remember,  as  always  in  all  flying,  is  to 
maintain  plenty  of  flying  speed.  There  is  nothing  so  much  to  be 


18 


THE  NERVOUS  ELEMENT  IN  AVIATION. 


avoided  as  a flat  glide;  that  is,  a glide  so  flat  that  your  lift  is  just 
barely  sufficient  to  keep  the  machine  from  falling.  It  is  not  safe  to 
approach  this  point.  The  more  speed  you  have,  the  more  lift,  hence 
the  more  control,  hence  the  more  safety.  Take  for  instance  the  two 
following  cases:  One  pilot  glides  down  for  a landing  with  a glide 
so  flat  that  he  has  speed  and  no  more.  Suppose  he  is  about  to  land 
when  another  machine  comes  suddenly  and  unwarrantedly  in  his 
way.  To  avoid  a collision,  he  either  tries  to  zoom  or  turns  his 
machine.  The  instant  he  does  either,  he  uses  all  his  lift  and  stalls. 
Of  course  he  crashes,  all  because  he  has  no  surplus  lift.  Now,  take 
the  -second  pilot,  who  comes  down  in  a good  glide  with  plenty  of 
excess  speed.  When  he  zooms  or  turns  he  has  full  control  over  his 
machine,  and  enough  lift  to  last  him  four  or  five  seconds,  long  enough 
to  avoid  a collision  and  regain  his  speed  by  use  of  the  motor.  If 
Vernon  Castle  had  had  enough  speed,  he  never  would  have  crashed 
in  zooming  another  machine.  From  this  it  is  evident  that  the  steep 
glide  is  better  than  a too  flat  one,  by  all  means. 

EULES  OF  THE  AIK. 

1.  A • machine  taking  off  “ or  taxying  ” has  the  right  of  way  over  a machine 
in  the  air. 

2.  Pass  another  machine  approaching  you  as  you  would  if  you  were  auto- 
mobiling.  That  is  right  wing  to  right  wing. 

3.  Overtake  another  machine  as  if  you  were  automobiling  on  his  left. 

4.  Of  two  machines  one  above  the  other,  the  lower  has  the  right  of  way. 

5.  A machine  with  a dead  stick  has  the  right  of  way. 

6.  A machine  gliding  or  spiralling,  or  stunting  has  the  right  of  way  over  one 
flying  level. 

7.  Never  trust  the  other  man  to  do  the  right  thing ; he  may  be  asleep. 

After  thinking  over  the  above,  it  is  not  difficult  to  realize  that  a 
man  must  be  on  the  alert  and  have  an  active,  cool  mind  at  all  times. 

The  above  outline  of  ordinary  flying  is  rather  crude  perhaps  and 
not  meant  to  be  sufficient  knowledge  for  a man  who  intends  to  sit  in 
a plane  and  begin  to  fly  perfectly  at  once.  One  must  overcome  many 
difficulties.  The  finer  points  of  stunt  flying  and  tight  places  that  a 
flier  must  get  out  of  in  order  to  save  his  life  and  machine,  are  not 
dwelt  upon  here,  for  in  so  limited  a discussion  the  subject  can  not  be 
handled  properly. 

It  takes  one  some  time  to  get  over  the  feeling  that  there  is  a con- 
siderable space  between  yourself  and  the  earth  as  soon  as  you  have 
left  it,  and  the  realization  that  ever  so  little  a thing,  such  as  the  turn 
of  the  wheel,  can  place  you  in  a position  out  of  which  under  certain 
circumstances  you  can  not  recover,  surely  does  arouse  subconscious 
thoughts  of  the  Valley  of  Shadows  from  which  travelers  do  not  re- 
turn. True,  just  ordinary  motions  and  sensible  thoughts  guide  your 


THE  NERVOUS  ELEMENT  IN  AVIATION. 


19 


hands  and  feet  to  control  the  plane,  but  to  the  beginner  the  new 
sensation  really  does  make  his  heart  pound  in  his  chest. 

You  at  first  view  the  splendid  panorama  beneath  you  with  wonder 
and  awe,  and  then,  as  you  thrust  out  your  neck  over  the  side  of  the 
plane  and  gaze  at  the  terribly  blank  space  directly  between  you 
and  the  earth,  you  naturally  try  to  think  of  pleasant  things  to  keep 
up  your  courage.  Your  pilot  is  a comfort.  He  grins  good  naturedly 
at  you,  and  this  reassures  you  pleasantly. 

I still  have  very  kind  feelings  for  the  pilot  who  first  took  me  up. 
He  was  a student  who  had  had  only  three  or  four  hours  of  solo 
work.  I have  always  admired  him  for  his  nerve,  for  he  did  not 
acquaint  me  with  his  inexperience  until  we  had  reached  terra  firm  a 
after  a very  bumpy  ride. 

This  ride  occurred  during  the  first  few  days  after  my  assignment 
to  an  air  station.  Of  course,  my  confidence  in  aeroplanes  increased 
thereafter,  and  I was  not  satisfied  until  I had  hold  of  the  controls 
myself.  But  it  took  me  some  time  to  get  over  the  feeling  of  being 
up  so  high.  I know  my  head  was  not  cool  enough  to  fly  a plane 
right,  although  the  instructors  would  tell  me  carefully  just  what 
should  be  done  and  I would  know  how  to  do  it.  I suffered  from 
what  is  called  in  the  hunting  districts  “ buck  fever.”  I have  also 
experienced  66  buck  fever  ” while  hunting.  It  occurs  after  you  have 
hunted  for  a long  time  without  success,  and  then  suddenly  a fine  buck 
cleer  rises  in  front  of  you  perhaps  75  yards  distant.  You  become  so 
excited  that  as  you  aim  your  rifle  you  begin  to  shake  all  over  and 
must  use  all  your  will  power  to  make  a steady  aim.  After  you  have 
brought  the  deer  clown  with  your  shot  you  feel  weak. 

I believe  that  I had  buck  fever  quite  badly  during  several  early 
flights.  My  mind  was  influenced  more  perhaps  by  some  of  the  acci- 
dent cases  I picked  out  of  the  bay  following  crashes.  During  that 
time  one  poor  lad  in  particular  weighed  upon  my  mind,  for  he  was 
a friend.  I assisted  in  removing  his  horribly  mangled  body  from 
the  wreck.  He  was  beyond  recognition.  But  I still  kept  going  up 
as  a passenger,  and  in  time  the  unpleasant  feeling  wore  off.  I can  say 
very*  frankly,  however,  that  I always  have  possessed  a subconscious 
feeling  of  impending  danger  while  in  the  air.  It  has  ,not  hampered 
my  sense  of  security,  however,  and  I believe  that  I am  as  cool  about 
such  matters  as  the  average  person. 

I lay  down  these  facts  merely  to  show  the  feelings  of  the  average 
individual  in  his  attitude  toward  flying  heavier-than-air  craft.  I 
do  not  consider  myself  overcalm  or  cool  while  meeting  the  exigencies 
of  life,  and  being  convinced  that  my  nerve  is  about  the  average  I 
have  used  the  analysis  of  it  as  a sort  of  basis,  to  work  out  the  feelings 
of  men  who  have  made  a profession  of  flying. 


20 


THE  NERVOUS  ELEMENT  IN  AVIATION. 


I have  found  that  the  average  number  of  fliers  at  first  experience 
about  the  same  sensation  I felt  myself.  Some  have  more  nerve  and 
daredeviltry  in  them  and  they  are  the  excellent  fliers.  They  are  so 
cool  that  it  becomes  almost  a second  nature  in  them  to  fly.  Others 
are  very  sensitive  and  will  never  get  over  being  afraid.  I knew  one 
instructor  who,  I was  sure,  hated  the  sight  of  an  aeroplane,  but  he 
would  not  give  up  until  after  the  armistice  was  signed  because  he 
did  not  want  to  be  branded  a quitter.  Bumpy  air  scared  him  so 
that  if  he  could  possibly  get  out  of  it  he  would  not  fly.  His  students 
did  not  have  the  proper  confidence  in  him.  He  was  what  is  known 
as  an  inconsistent  flier.  One  day  he  would  fly  fairly  well  and  the 
next  he  would  be  porpoising  all  over  the  bay  and  doing  other  unin- 
tentional stunts.  He  would  climb  exceptionally  slowly  and  glide 
down  like  a shot,  as  if  in  a hurry  to  reach  mother  earth  again,  and 
then  away  he  would  go  flying  just  above  the  water  for  a much  longer 
distance  than  was  necessary  to  land,  then  gradually  begin  to  feel 
his  way  down  with  the  back  of  his  pontoon.  He  talked  in  a strained 
manner  and  was  of  a neuropathic  make-up.  But  he  always  turned 
out  his  students,  and  got  in  the  required  number  <)f  hours.  Luck 
seemed  to  be  with  him,  for  his  planes  avoided  crashes  somehow. 

Occasionally  one  finds  a beginner  who  is  hopelessly  without  nerve. 
Two  men  that  I remember  distinctly  came  to  me  and  on  being  put 
through  the  grill  broke  down  and  cried.  One  lad  in  particular  told 
me  that  if  the  Secretary  of  the  Navy  himself  should  order  him  out 
in  an  aeroplane  he  would  not  go.  Of  course,  such  cases  were  thrown 
out  of  the  service  as  soon  as  discovered. 

Generally  several  days  of  inconsistent  flying  occurred  among  the 
students  after  a man  had  been  killed  by  a fall.  It  is  best  to  not  stop 
the  flying  because  of  a fatal  accident.  It  takes  some  of  the  weaker 
ones’  nerve  down  a bit,  but  brooding  over  possibilities  during  inac- 
tion is  poor  policy.  With  hands  and  feet  on  the  control,  confidence 
is  regained.  And  this  was  war  and  not  mere  sport. 

Students  were  taken  temporarily  from  flying  upon  the  discovery 
of  very  minor  defects.  For  example,  the  slightest  strain  or  sprain 
of  wrist  or  ankle  would  be  sufficient  to  place  a man  on  the  sick  list. 
Malingerers  at  sick  call  were  uncommon,  but  when  discovered,  were 
watched  with  extra  care.  Often  they  were  allowed  to  carry  on  for 
a short  time  until  a thorough  personal  investigation  could  be  carried 
out.  The  investigation  would  frequently  reveal  something  of  signifi- 
cance in  regard  to  the  man’s  flying  ability  or  nerve. 

The  students,  during  the  early  summer  of  1918,  were  often  worked 
too  hard.  Many  of  them  at  that  time  averaged  only  five  or  six  hours 
of  sleep.  Their  duties  consisted  of  more  than  flying  and  ground 
school.  They  handled  lumber,  barrels  of  gasoline,  cement  mixers, 
etc.,  and  many  were  played  out  and  did  not  maintain  the  best  phys- 


THE  NERVOUS  ELEMENT  IN  AVIATION.  21 

ical  standards.  The  system  was  changed,  however,  and  the  hours 
and  amount  of  work  was  cut  down  considerably. 

I believe  that  the  nearer  we  approach  the  Goshport  system  of  train- 
ing, the  better  w7ill  be  the  trained  fliers  turned  out.  This  system  al- 
lows a student  to  fly  only  when  he  feels  like  it,  and  assigns  only  two 
or  three  men  to  an  instructor.  The  old  system  gave  10  or  15  men  to 
an  instructor.  Under  this  new  system  the  instructor  gets  to  under- 
stand his  students  better  through  more  constant  and  personal  associa- 
tion, and  the  students  have  time  to  figure  out  their  problems  at 
leisure. 

A medical  officer’s  position  at  a naval  air  station  is  somewhat  dif- 
ferent from  that  of  the  medical  officer  at  any  other  station.  The 
medical  officer  must  know  all  the  men  who  fly,  and  know  them  well. 
He  must  be  what  is  known  as  a good  mixer.  He  must  possess  the 
faculty  of  obtaining  the  most  intimate  confidences  from  these  young 
officers,  and  must  spend  hours  in  informal  association  with  them. 
He  must  be  liked,  and  go  out  of  his  way  to  obtain  their  good  will  and 
respect,  and  be  ever  ready  to  sit  down,  for  example,  to  a lengthy 
discussion  of  the  young  fellow’s  domestic  difficulties. 

By  so  doing  you  learn  your  man’s  make-up.  You  have  an  intimate 
idea  of  his  caliber;  so,  when  difficulties  come  up  in  his  flying,  you 
have  a valuable  stock  of  information  to  draw  upon. 

To  illustrate  the  bearing  that  your  possession  of  his  confidence  and 
respect  for  you  may  have  upon  a boy’s  ability  to  fly,  a simple  case  of 
a very  young  fellow  comes  to  my  mind  at  this  moment. 

The  lad  was  a very  conscientious  and  gentlemanly  young  man. 
He  had  gone  right  from  home  to  college  and  before  finishing  his 
course  had  taken  to  naval  aviation.  He  was  a delicate  sort  of  boy 
and  his  intimacy  with  the  hard  knocks  of  the  world  was  not  overgreat. 
I began  to  notice  that  he  did  not  eat  very  much  and  that  he  was 
dejected.  He  walked  by  himself  a good  bit  and  did  not  go  to  bed 
early.  On  the  beach  he  seemed  to  have  lost  his  former  “ pep.”  I 
watched  him  from  a distance  for  some  time  and  soon  began  to  notice 
that  he  was  very  inconsistent  in  his  flying.  His  instructor  told  me 
also  that  the  boy  had  evidently  lost  his  “pep.”  One  day  the  in- 
structor took  me  up  and  we  followed  the  boy  around  the  course  to 
watch  his  flying.  At  about  10  miles  from  the  station  the  lad  shut 
off  his  motor  and  glided  down  for  a landing,  and  after  taxying  a> 
bit  on  the  water  we  noticed  that  his  propeller  stopped  its  motion. 
We  flew  back  to  the  station  and  reported  his  plane  as  having  a 
“ dead  stick  ” and  then  again  flew  around  the  course.  As  we  came 
back  to  the  location  of  the  boy  and  his  plane  the  pilot  spiraled  down 
and  landed  a short  distance  away.  I at  once  noticed  that  the  boy’s 
head  was  hanging  to  one  side  and  resting  on  the  fuselage.  Thinking 
that  perhaps  he  was  ill,  we  taxied  close  in  to  him  and  began  shout- 


22 


THE  NERVOUS  ELEMENT  IN  AVIATION. 


ing.  He  suddenly  sat  upright  and  rubbed  his  eyes  in  surprise.  He 
had  been  sound  asleep  and  had  not  been  awakened  even  by  the 
extraordinary  noise  of  our  motor.  It  took  some  shouting  to  awTaken 
him,  too. 

I requested  that  the  instructor  say  nothing  about  my  presence  to 
the  boy.  He  had  not  recognized  me  in  the  flying  costume.  The 
next  day  I joined  him  as  he  was  walking  up  the  street  and  we  had 
a chat  for  a half  hour  as  we  covered  the  distance  to  town.  The  chat 
was  about  nothing  in  particular.  In  a couple  days,  however,  he 
was  in  my  room  smoking  and  telling  me  the  most  woeful  tale  you 
could  imagine  about  how  his  girl,  to  whom  he  was  engaged  out  West, 
had  just  given  him  the  cold  shoulder.  He  said  “ I am  all  broken  up 
over  it.”  Of  course  I had  to  bolster  him  up  and  help  him  forget 
it.  I obtained  three  days5'  leave  for  him  to  go  to  New  York,  and 
gave  him  the  names  of  several  people  to  locate  at  different  clubs. 
He  came  back  a new  man  and  went  to  flying  like  a veteran.  The 
last  time  I heard  of  him  he  had  a new  girl,  had  finished  his  training, 
and  had  obtained  his  commission.  He  turned  out  to  be  an  excellent 
flier. 

So  I learned  that  tact  and  constant  association  play  a great  part  in 
discovering  the  traits  essential  for  making  up  a good  flier.  One  of 
course  must  not  go  too  far  with  the  intimacy.  That  would  not  be 
policy.  The  medical  officer  in  military  branches  should  not  breed  too 
much  familiarity.  He  is  a doctor  at  all  times  and  an  officer  in  grade 
and  rank. 

It  takes  the  right  kind  of  medical  officer  on  an  air  station  to  help 
bring  out  success  in  flying.  He  must  be  on  the  job,  and  if  he  doe's 
his  work  properly,  the  sick  call  in  the  morning  is  not  the  all  im- 
portant event  of  the  day.  The  number  of  flying  hours  can  be  in- 
creased markedly  through  the  influence  of  the  medical  officer.  Dur- 
ing the  days  when  the  rush  was  great  to  turn  out  fliers,  and  time  lost 
in  getting  these  men  abroad  meant  a great  deal,  the  doctor  had  to  be 
on  his  toes  to  keep  up  with  the  work.  Many  trips  he  had  to  make 
through  the  sleeping  quarters  at  midnight  to  watch  them  in  their 
sleep  and  see  that  they  had  proper  ventilation  and  sufficient  bed 
clothing  and  were  not  disturbed  by  unnecessary  noises.  He  had  to 
watch  them  eat,  watch  them  as  they  returned  from  liberty,  and 
watch  over  countless  other  little  things.  In  short  he  was  one  of  the 
athletic  trainers,  and  they  all  knew  that  the  doctor  was  working  for 
them,  for  their  health  and  welfare.  They  appreciated  it,  and  there 
was  no  grumbling. 

As  I have  gazed  down  upon  the  lifeless  bodies  of  some  of  the  noble 
men  whom  it  has  been  my  lot  to  see  crash  to  the  earth  from  lofty 
heights  to  meet  death  instantaneously,  my  heart  has  gleaned  the  f ul  1 


THE  NERVOUS  ELEMENT  IN  AVIATION. 


23 


meaning  of  patriotism,  of  right  over  might,  and  of  the  justice  of  a 
cause  for  which  the  best  young  blood  of  our  land  has  been  shed. 

Those  lifeless  features  but  a moment  ago  were  set  in  grim  defiance, 
those  limp  hands  were  clutching  the  wheel  in  steady  control,  and  with 
nerves  alert  when  the  unexpected  came.  Did  the  flyer  try  to  meet  it  ? 
Yes ! to  the  very  last  precious  inch  of  space  allowed  him  he  worked 
in  frantic,  grim  desperation.  Down  swift  as  a shot  he  goes;  the 
inevitable  stares  at  him.  He  does  not  shut  his  eyes  and  wait.  No ! 
he  clamps  his  teeth  and  works  to  the  very  last  moment,  and  then  it  is 
over  in  a fraction  of  a second.  All  great  fliers  expect  this  kind  of 
death  some  day,  and  one  who  knows  them  can  never  doubt  the  ear- 
nestness of  that  last  grim  effort  before  the  fatal  crash. 


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